In metallurgy Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. It is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to their practical use. Metallurgy is commonly used in the craft of metalworking stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from French "inoxydable", is defined as a steel Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade. Carbon is the most common alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used, such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten. Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing alloy An alloy is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in distribution depending on thermal history. Alloys usually have different properties from those of the with a minimum of 10.5[1] or 11% chromium Chromium is a chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic number 24, first element in Group 6. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish and has a high melting point. It is also odorless, tasteless, and malleable. The name of the element is derived from the Greek word "chrōma" (χρώμα), meaning color, content by mass.[2] Stainless steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily as ordinary steel, but it is not stain-proof.[3] It is also called corrosion-resistant steel or CRES when the alloy type and grade are not detailed, particularly in the aviation industry. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the environment to which the material will be subjected in its lifetime. Stainless steel is used where both the properties of steel and resistance to corrosion are required.

Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Carbon steel rusts when exposed to air and moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide. Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form a passive film of chromium oxide, which prevents further surface corrosion and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure.

Contents

History

An announcement, as it appeared in the 1915 New York Times, of the development of stainless steel.[4]

A few corrosion-resistant iron artifacts survive from antiquity. A famous (and very large) example is the Iron Pillar of Delhi The iron pillar of Delhi, India is a 7 meter high pillar in the Qutb complex which is a curiosity because of the composition of the metals used in its construction, erected by order of Kumara Gupta I Kumaragupta I was ruler of the Gupta Empire from 415-455 CE. Like his father and predecessor, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta was an able ruler. He retained, intact, the vast empire, which extended from North Bengal to Kathiawar and from the Himalayas to the Narmada. He ruled efficiently for nearly forty years. However, the last days of his reign around the year AD 400 Year 400 was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Unlike stainless steel, however, these artifacts owe their durability not to chromium, but to their high phosphorus Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus is commonly found in inorganic phosphate rocks. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms – white phosphorus and red phosphorus. Although the term "phosphorescence", meaning glow after content, which, together with favorable local weather conditions, promotes the formation of a solid protective passivation layer Passivation is the process of making a material "passive" in relation to another material prior to using the materials together. For example, prior to storing hydrogen peroxide in an aluminium container, the container can be passivated by rinsing it with a dilute solution of nitric acid and peroxide alternating with deionized water. The of iron oxides Iron oxides are chemical compounds composed of iron and oxygen. Altogether, there are sixteen known iron oxides and oxyhydroxides and phosphates A phosphate, an inorganic chemical, is a salt of phosphoric acid. In organic chemistry, a phosphate, or organophosphate, is an ester of phosphoric acid. Organic phosphates are important in biochemistry and biogeochemistry or ecology. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in agriculture and industry. At elevated temperatures, rather than the non-protective, cracked rust Rust is a general term for a series of iron oxides. Colloquially, the term is applied to red oxides, formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Yet, there are also other forms of rust, such as the result of the reaction of iron and chlorine in an environment deprived of oxygen, such as rebar used in layer that develops on most ironwork.

The corrosion-resistance of iron-chromium alloys was first recognized in 1821 by the French France (pronounced /ˈfrænts/ frantss or /ˈfrɑːnts/ frahnts; French pronunciation (help·info): [fʁɑ̃s]), officially the French Republic (French: République française, pronounced: [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a state in Western Europe with several of its overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, metallurgist Pierre Berthier Pierre Berthier was a French geologist and mining engineer, who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery Cutlery refers to any hand implement used in preparing, serving, and especially eating food in the Western world. It is more usually known as silverware or flatware in the United States, where cutlery can have the more specific meaning of knives and other cutting instruments. This is probably the original meaning of the word. Since silverware. Metallurgists of the 19th century, however, were unable to produce the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the high-chromium alloys they could produce were too brittle to be practical.

In the late 1890s Hans Goldschmidt Born in Berlin, he was a student of Robert Bunsen. His father, Theodor Goldschmidt, was the founder of the chemical company Chemische Fabrik Th. Goldschmidt which eventually became the modern company Degussa, and Hans and his brother Karl managed this company for many years of Germany A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, has been known and documented before AD 100. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire, which lasted until 1806. During the 16th century, northern Germany became the centre of the Protestant Reformation. As a modern nation-state, developed an aluminothermic (thermite Thermite is a pyrotechnic composition of a metal powder and a metal oxide, which produces an aluminothermic reaction known as a thermite reaction. Most varieties are not explosive, but can create short bursts of extremely high temperatures focused on a very small area for a short period of time) process for producing carbon-free chromium. Between 1904 and 1911 several researchers, particularly Leon Guillet of France, prepared alloys that would today be considered stainless steel.

Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft was a German shipbuilding company, located in the harbour at Kiel, and one of the largest and most important builders of U-boats for the Kaiserliche Marine in World War I and the Kriegsmarine in World War II built the 366-ton sailing yacht Germania featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull in Germany in 1908.[5] In 1911, Philip Monnartz reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance. On October 17, 1912 Krupp The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their steel production and for their manufacture of ammunition and armaments. The family business, known as Friedrich Krupp AG Hoesch-Krupp, was the largest company in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1999 it merged with Thyssen AG to form engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented austenitic Austenite is a metallic non-magnetic allotrope of iron or a solid solution of iron, with an alloying element. In plain-carbon steel, austenite exists above the critical eutectoid temperature of 1,000 K (730 °C); other alloys of steel have different eutectoid temperatures. It is named after Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen (1843-1902) stainless steel.[6]

Similar developments were taking place contemporaneously in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen and Frederick Becket were industrializing ferritic Ferrite or alpha iron is a materials science term for iron, or a solid solution with iron as the main constituent, with a body centred cubic crystal structure. It is the component which gives steel and cast iron their magnetic properties, and is the classic example of a ferromagnetic material stainless steel. In 1912, Elwood Haynes Elwood P. Haynes was an American inventor, metallurgist, automotive pioneer, entrepreneur and industrialist. He invented the metal alloys stellite and martensitic stainless steel and designed one of the earliest automobiles made in the United States. He is recognized for having created the earliest American design that was feasible for mass applied for U.S. patent on a martensitic Martensite, named after the German metallurgist Adolf Martens , most commonly refers to a very hard form of steel crystalline structure, but it can also refer to any crystal structure that is formed by displacive transformation. It includes a class of hard minerals occurring as lath- or plate-shaped crystal grains. When viewed in cross-section, stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.[7]

Also in 1912, Harry Brearley Harry Brearley is usually credited with the invention of "rustless steel" (later to be called "stainless steel") in the anglophone world, although Krupp filed a patent for its brand of Nirosta a few months before Brearley's breakthrough of the Brown-Firth In 1902 Sheffield steelmakers John Brown and Company exchanged shares and came to a working agreement with neighbouring company Thomas Firth & Sons. The companies continued under their own management until they merged in 1930 becoming Firth Brown Steels. In 1908 the two companies came together and established the Brown Firth Research research laboratory in Sheffield, England Sheffield (pronounced /ˈʃɛfiːld/ ) is a city and metropolitan borough of South Yorkshire, England. Its name derives from the River Sheaf, which runs through the city. Historically a part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, the city has grown from its largely industrial roots to encompass a wider economic base. The population of the City of, while seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy. The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in The New York Times The New York Times is an American daily newspaper founded and continuously published in New York City since 1851. Although it remains both the largest local metropolitan newspaper in the United States as well as third largest overall behind The Wall Street Journal and USA Today, the weekday circulation of the paper has fallen precipitously in.[4] Brearley applied for a U.S. patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered a patent. Brearley and Haynes pooled their finding, and with a group of investors formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers Vickers was formed in Sheffield as a steel foundry by the miller Edward Vickers and his father-in-law George Naylor in 1828. Naylor was a partner in the foundry Naylor & Sanderson and Vickers' brother William owned a steel rolling operation. Edward's investments in the railway industry allowed him to gain control of the company, based at in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel The Savoy Hotel is a hotel located on the Strand, in the City of Westminster in central London. Built by impresario Richard D'Oyly Carte, the hotel opened on 6 August 1889 and was the first in the Savoy group of hotels and restaurants owned by Carte's family for over a century. The hotel is now managed by Fairmont Hotels and Resorts. It has been in London London is a leading global city being the world's largest financial centre alongside New York City, and has the largest city GDP in Europe. Central London is home to the headquarters of most of the UK's top 100 listed companies and more than 100 of Europe's 500 largest. London's influence in politics, finance, education, entertainment, media, in 1929.[8]

Properties

High oxidation-resistance in air The atmosphere of Earth is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth that is retained by Earth's gravity. The atmosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the surface through heat retention , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night. Dry air contains roughly (by volume) 78% nitrogen, 21% at ambient temperature Historically, two equivalent concepts of temperature have developed, the thermodynamic description and a microscopic explanation based on statistical physics. Since thermodynamics deals entirely with macroscopic measurements, the thermodynamic definition of temperature, first stated by Lord Kelvin, is stated entirely in empirical, measurable is normally achieved with additions of a minimum of 13% (by weight) chromium Chromium is a chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic number 24, first element in Group 6. It is a steely-gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish and has a high melting point. It is also odorless, tasteless, and malleable. The name of the element is derived from the Greek word "chrōma" (χρώμα), meaning color,, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments.[9] The chromium forms a passivation Passivation is the process of making a material "passive" in relation to another material prior to using the materials together. For example, prior to storing hydrogen peroxide in an aluminium container, the container can be passivated by rinsing it with a dilute solution of nitric acid and peroxide alternating with deionized water. The layer of chromium(III) oxide Chromium oxide is the inorganic compound of the formula Cr2O3. It is one of principal oxides of chromium and is used as a pigment. In nature, it occurs as the rare mineral eskolaite (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen Oxygen (pronounced /ˈɒksɨdʒɨn/, OK-si-jin, from the Greek roots ὀξύς (acid, literally "sharp", from the taste of acids) and -γενής (-genēs) (producer, literally begetter), is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table, and is a highly. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous. The layer is impervious to water Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state, water vapor or steam and air, protecting the metal beneath. Also, this layer quickly reforms when the surface is scratched. This phenomenon is called passivation Passivation is the process of making a material "passive" in relation to another material prior to using the materials together. For example, prior to storing hydrogen peroxide in an aluminium container, the container can be passivated by rinsing it with a dilute solution of nitric acid and peroxide alternating with deionized water. The and is seen in other metals, such as aluminium Aluminium (UK: /ˌæljʉˈmɪniəm/ AL-yew-MIN-ee-əm) or aluminum (US: /əˈluːmɨnəm/ ( listen) ə-LOO-mi-nəm) is a silvery white and ductile member of the boron group of chemical elements. It has the symbol Al and its atomic number is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth' and titanium Titanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ti and atomic number 22. Sometimes called the "space age metal", it has a low density and is a strong, lustrous, corrosion-resistant (including sea water, aqua regia and chlorine) transition metal with a silver color. Corrosion-resistance can be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical example being underwater keel In boats and ships, keel can refer to either of two parts: a structural element, or a hydrodynamic element. These parts overlap. As the laying down of the keel is the initial step in construction of a ship, in British and American shipbuilding traditions the construction is dated from this event. Only the ship's launching is considered more bolts buried in timber Lumber or timber is wood that is used in any of its stages from felling through readiness for use as structural material for construction, or wood pulp for paper production.

When stainless steel parts such as nuts A nut is a type of hardware fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used opposite a mating bolt to fasten a stack of parts together. The two partners are kept together by a combination of their threads' friction, a slight stretch of the bolt, and compression of the parts. In applications where vibration or rotation may work a nut and bolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off, causing the parts to weld Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to together. When disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect known as galling Galling usually refers to adhesive wear and transfer of material between metallic surfaces during sheet metal forming and other industrial applications. This destructive galling can be best avoided by the use of dissimilar materials for the parts forced together, e.g. bronze and stainless steel, or even different types of stainless steels (martensitic Martensite, named after the German metallurgist Adolf Martens , most commonly refers to a very hard form of steel crystalline structure, but it can also refer to any crystal structure that is formed by displacive transformation. It includes a class of hard minerals occurring as lath- or plate-shaped crystal grains. When viewed in cross-section, against austenitic Austenite is a metallic non-magnetic allotrope of iron or a solid solution of iron, with an alloying element. In plain-carbon steel, austenite exists above the critical eutectoid temperature of 1,000 K (730 °C); other alloys of steel have different eutectoid temperatures. It is named after Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen (1843-1902), etc.), when metal-to-metal wear is a concern. Nitronic alloys (trademark of Armco, Inc.) reduce the tendency to gall through selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen.

Applications

The pinnacle of New York's Chrysler Building The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper in New York City, located on the east side of Manhattan in the Turtle Bay area at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue. Standing at 319 metres , it was the world's tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931. After the destruction of the is clad with type 302 stainless steel.[10]
An art deco Art Deco is an eclectic artistic and design style which had its origins in Paris in the first decades of the 20th century. Nowadays the style is said to have been active from around 1910 until the outbreak of World War II. The style was named in the 1960s after the 1925 Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes that sculpture on the Niagara-Mohawk Power building in Syracuse, New York.

Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, relatively low cost, and familiar luster make it an ideal base material for a host of commercial applications. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are most commonly used. The alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, hardware, surgical instruments, major appliances, industrial equipment e.g. in sugar refineries, and as an automotive and aerospace structural alloy and construction material in large buildings. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food are often made of stainless steel, due to its corrosion resistance and antibacterial properties. This also influences its use in commercial kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam-cleaned, sterilized, and does not need painting or application of other surface finishes.

Stainless steel is used for jewellery and watches. 316L is the stainless steel commonly used for such purpose. It can be re-finished by any jeweller and will not oxidize or turn black.

Some firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative to blued or parkerized steel. Some handgun models, such as the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 pistol, can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster finish similar in appearance to nickel plating; but, unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off due to rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster over the course of time), or rust when scratched.

Some automotive manufacturers use stainless steel as decorative highlights in their vehicles.

Uses in sculpture, building facades and building structures

The Unisphere in New York City.

Recycling and reuse

Stainless steel is 100% recyclable. An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material of which ≈40% originates from end-of-life products and ≈60% comes from manufacturing processes.[13]

Types of stainless steel

Pipes and fittings made of stainless steel. Stainless steel chair in use in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The austenitic AISI 304 is suitable for use in marine regions due to its high oxidation resistance.

There are different types of stainless steels: when nickel is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized. This crystal structure makes such steels non-magnetic and less brittle at low temperatures. For greater hardness and strength, more carbon is added. When subjected to adequate heat treatment, these steels are used as razor blades, cutlery, tools, etc.

Significant quantities of manganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an austenitic structure in the steel as does nickel, but at a lower cost.

Stainless steels are also classified by their crystalline structure:

Comparison of standardized steels

EN-standard

Steel no. k.h.s DIN

 EN-standard

Steel name

 SAE grade UNS
440A S44002
1.4112 440B S44003
1.4125 440C S44004
440F S44020
1.4016 X6Cr17 430 S43000
1.4408 G-X 6 CrNiMo 18-10 316
1.4512 X6CrTi12 409 S40900
410 S41000
1.4310 X10CrNi18-8 301 S30100
1.4318 X2CrNiN18-7 301LN N/A
1.4307 X2CrNi18-9 304L S30403
1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304L S30403
1.4311 X2CrNiN18-10 304LN S30453
1.4301 X5CrNi18-10 304 S30400
1.4948 X6CrNi18-11 304H S30409
1.4303 X5CrNi18-12 305 S30500
X5CrNi30-9 312
1.4541 X6CrNiTi18-10 321 S32100
1.4878 X12CrNiTi18-9 321H S32109
1.4404 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 316L S31603
1.4401 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 316 S31600
1.4406 X2CrNiMoN17-12-2 316LN S31653
1.4432 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 316L S31603
1.4435 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 316L S31603
1.4436 X3CrNiMo17-13-3 316 S31600
1.4571 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 316Ti S31635
1.4429 X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 316LN S31653
1.4438 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 317L S31703
1.4539 X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5 904L N08904
1.4547 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 N/A S31254

Stainless steel grades

There are a number of different systems for grading stainless and other steels. The article on US SAE steel grades details a large number of grades with their properties.

Stainless steel in 3D printing

Some 3D printing providers have developed proprietary stainless steel sintering[15] blends for use in rapid prototyping. Currently available grades do not vary in properties significantly.[16]

Stainless steel finishes

316L stainless steel, with an unpolished, mill finish. Main article: Brushed metal

Standard mill finishes can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then annealed to change the properties of the final material. Any oxidation that forms on the surface (scale) is removed by pickling, and a passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.

See also

References

  1. ^ "The Stainless Steel Family". http://www.worldstainless.org/NR/rdonlyres/B2617D50-73AE-4FAB-BDCD-88ABD7891B97/4933/TheStainlessSteelFamily.pdf. Retrieved 2009-11-12.
  2. ^ . American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). . Retrieved October 21, 2008.
  3. ^ "Why is Stainless Steel Stainless?". http://www.stainless-online.com/why-stainless-steel-stainless.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-20. .
  4. ^ a b "A non-rusting steel". New York Times. 31 January 1915.
  5. ^ "A Proposal to Establish the Shipwreck Half Moon as a State Underwater Archaeological Preserve". Bureau of Archaeological Research, Division of Historical Resources, Florida Department of State. May 2000. http://dhr.dos.state.fl.us/archaeology/underwater/preserves/HM_Prop3.pdf.
  6. ^ "ThyssenKrupp Nirosta: History". http://www.nirosta.de/History.22.0.html?&L=1. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
  7. ^ Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, p. 380, Rodney P. Carlisle, John Wiley and Sons, 2004, ISBN 0471244104, ISBN 9780471244103
  8. ^ Sheffield Steel, ISBN 0-7509-2856-5
  9. ^ Ashby, Michael F.; & David R. H. Jones (1992) [1986]. "Chapter 12". Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 119. ISBN 0-08-032532-7.
  10. ^ "What is Stainless Steel?". Nickel Institute. http://www.nickelinstitute.org/index.cfm/ci_id/11021.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-13.
  11. ^ General Facts
  12. ^ What is Stainless Steel?
  13. ^ "The Recycling of Stainless Steel ("Recycled Content" and "Input Composition" slides)" (Flash). International Stainless Steel Forum. 2006. http://www.worldstainless.org/ISSF/Files/Recycling08/Flash.html. Retrieved 2006-11-19.
  14. ^ Material Properties Data: Marine Grade Stainless Steel
  15. ^ Shapeways: Stainless Steel
  16. ^ Material Properties Data: 3D Printing Steel

External links

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Q. A lot of people kept recommending stainless steel cookware. After reading up on it and stuff, I decided to take a shoot. Its been a big a real pain. Things easy burn on the surface... seriously compromising the non-stickiness. I ruined a turner b/c I had kept the food moving around to stop sticking. Also, a bigger pain to clean. From what I read, you don't want use soapy water, since that will ruin the seasoning nor heavy duty pads. Any suggestions of cleaning? There a way to keeps stuff from burning on instead of building up a good seasoning. The only thing I can cook on it is eggs, omelets, and stuff, which turn out very nice. It got great heat retention and distribution compared to anything I have used. I guess I will… [cont.]
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A. Under no circumstances can stainless steel be seasoned. The reason it is so brilliant for some types of cooking is because it is virtually poreless and nonreactive, oil cannot penetrate stainless steel. So seasoning is absolutely fruitless. (seasoning is for cast iron ONLY) You can absolutely(and should) clean stainless pans with soap and water. To make cleanup an easy task: remove food from pan, but leave pan on the heat. Pour a cup of water into the pan. Scrape bottom with a spatula. Dump water down disposal. Wipe with a cotton towel. Lay aside to cool before washing. To prevent food from sticking as much: Let cold food come to room temp before placing in pan. Preheat pan on med-low for 3-4 minutes. Add oil. Add food. Don't move… [cont.]
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